LMI 1 Classifications 2013

Training on ISCO - Fourth Meeting of the Working Group on International Classifications David Hunter Department of Statistics International Labour Office

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Contents of the presentaion 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

What is ISCO? What is ISCO used for? Conceptual basis and design of the classification The Structure of ISCO-08 Main criteria to distinguish between the Major Groups Adapting ISCO-08 for use in national and regional settings Areas requiring particular atención in adapting ISCO for use at national and regional settings Collecting and coding data on occupation in household surveys.

ILO Department of Statistics

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WHAT IS ISCO?

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) • •

• • • • •

Endorsed by the ILO Governing Body in 2008 it is known as ISCO-08 and replaces ISCO-88 Structure , group definitions and correspondence with ISCO-08 available on ILO Website or on request Index of occupational titles will be available very soon, and published as volume 2 Published in English – And in French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic as soon as possible Used in European Union (EU) collections from 2010 Structure is available in all EU languages from Eurostat Hierarchically structured classification comprising: – 10 major groups – 43 sub-major groups – 130 minor groups – 436 unit groups

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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The concept of occupation Occupation – The type of work done by the person employed irrespective of where (the industry), or under what status in employment, it is being done – A “set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterized by a high degree of similarity” • Not to be confused with: Industry (branch of economic activity) – –

The activity of the establishment in which an employed person works What the establishment does, not what the individual does when working for that establishment

Status in employment – –

The status of an economically active person with respect to his/her employer The type of implicit or explicit contract of employment with other persons or organizations as an employer, employee, own account worker, contributing family helper etc.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Occupation – overview of the concept and uses of occupational information Occupation – The type of work done by the person employed irrespective of where (the industry), or under what status in employment, it is being done – An occupation is a “set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterized by a high degree of similarity” – Second most common economic topic asked in Censuses – Almost always asked in Labour force surveys – Widely used in administrative applications such as employment services – Major component of national labour market information – Data are needed for policy formulation and evaluation for • • • •

labour market programmes, educational planning, work related migration ….

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Occupation, industry, status in employment as attributes of the job  In labour statistics these 3 concepts relate to a job in which a person is, has been, or may be employed  Job : a set of tasks and duties performed, or meant to be performed, by one person for a single economic unit  Some people have more than one job  Occupation is a descriptive characteristic of a job not a person  Occupation can relate to job vacancies as well as jobs held by persons

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Examples of jobs • Examples: – – – – –

Security guard in a department store Security guard at an airport Accountant at a hotel Bus driver who drives passengers to the aircraft at an airport Bus driver employed by schools authority to drive school bus

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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ISCO-88 - Background •

•

Until recently most countries used national occupation classifications related to ISCO-88 This version was adopted by the 14th International Conference of Labour Statisticians in 1988: – For this reason it is known as ISCO-88 – Published in English in 1990 and in French, Spanish and Russian during the 90s – Hierarchically structured classification comprising: • • • •

10 major groups 28 sub-major groups 118 minor groups 390 unit groups

– Occupations are arranged into groups according to skill level and skill specialization – Use of skill level led to a major break with ISCO-68 and ISCO-58

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Framework for Updating ISCO-88 •

Mandated by the 17th ICLS in 2003: – An update not a major revision – ILO meeting of experts to evaluate the results and make appropriate recommendations to the ILO Governing Body

•

Advice and support from expert groups in classification: – UN Expert Group on International Economic and Social Classifications – ILO Technical Expert Group on Updating ISCO (TEG/ISCO)

• • • •

Reporting of progress to UN Statistical Commission Completion required by end 2007 to allow for implementation in Censuses from 2010 ISCO-08 adopted by Meeting of Experts in Labour Statistics – Dec 2007 Resolution of MoE endorsed by ILO Governing Body - March 2008

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Scope of the work undertaken: What kinds of things were allowed to be changed? •

‘Conceptual model and Main structure should not be changed’  Existing 10 major groups should remain  Concepts of skill level and skill specialization should still be used

• • • • • •

Categories can be merged, split and moved where necessary to reflect occupational change and address known problems with ISCO-88 New categories for new occupational groups Size of groups was an important but not overriding consideration Preserve the time series wherever possible Definitions of new categories and update definitions of old ones Review of the index

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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What was wrong with ISCO-88? •

Seriously out-of-date in some areas: – (Eg. ICT, Office clerks, information clerks)

•

Excessive detail in some areas: – (Eg. plant and machinery operators)

•

Inadequate detail in some areas: – (Eg. service related occupations and occupations that predominate in the informal sector)

• • •

Wide variation in the size of some sub-major and minor groups Classification structure for managerial occupations was not useful Parallel groups in Major groups 2 and 3 due to differences in national education requirements

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Parallel groups in ISCO-88 Major groups 2 and 3 due to differences in national education requirements •

Major group 2, Professionals

•

2230 Nursing and midwifery professionals

• • • •

•

Major group 3, Technicians and associate professionals

• •

3231 Nursing associate professionals 3232 Midwifery associate professionals

2331 Primary education teaching professionals 2332 Pre-primary education teaching professionals 2340 Special education teaching professionals

•

3310 Primary education teaching associate professionals 3320 Pre-primary education teaching associate professionals 3330 Special education teaching associate professionals

2446 Social work professionals

•

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

• •

3460 Social work associate professionals

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ISCO - Some of the more significant changes in ISCO08 (1) •

Elimination of parallel groups at different skill levels if tasks performed are the same: – Virtually all teaching occupations are classified in Sub-major Group 24, Teaching professionals – Nurses are classified in Major groups 2 or 3 depending on tasks performed and not on qualifications alone

• •

Reorganization of managerial occupations in Major Group 1 Major updating and expansion of occupations in information and communications technology: – 2 new sub-major groups in Major groups 2 and 3

•

Improved coverage and upgrading of health services occupations – Identifiable at sub-major group level in Major groups 2 and 3 and at Minor group level in Major group 5, Sales and Service Workers

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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ISCO - Some of the more significant changes in ISCO08 (2) •

Reorganization of the section of the classification dealing with office clerks: – Impact of information and communications technology – Increase from 2 to 4 sub-major groups in Major group 4, Clerical Support Workers

•

Reorganization of the aggregate groupings for sales and service workers: – Increase from 2 to 4 sub-major groups in Major group 5

•

More detailed categories and greater clarity for some occupational groups involved in agriculture: – Farmers and farm managers are classified in Major group 6, Skilled agricultural forestry and fisheries workers, with few exceptions

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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ISCO - Some of the more significant changes (3) • •

More detailed categories for occupations providing information and services to clients, including tourism. Rationalization and restructuring of groups for plant and machine operators: – Some reduction of detail considered excessive by many observers – New minor group for process control operators in Major group 3

•

Extended coverage of occupations that are significant in the informal sector: – Associated increase in the number of sub-major groups in ISCO Major Group 9, Elementary occupations from 3 to 6.

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Number of groups at each level of ISCO-08 (Numbers for ISCO-88 are shown in brackets where different)

Major groups 1 Managers 2 Professionals 3 Technicians and associate professionals 4 Clerical support workers

5 Service and sales workers 6 Skilled agricultural, fishery, and forestry workers 7 Craft and related trades workers 8 Plant and machine operators, and assemblers

9 Elementary occupations 0 Armed forces occupations Total ISCO-08 (ISCO-88) International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

Sub-major Minor Groups groups

4 (3) 6 (4) 5 (4) 4 (2) 4 (2) 3 (2) 5 (4) 3 6 (3) 3 (1) 43 (28)

11 (8) 27 (18) 20 8 (7) 13 (9) 9 (6)

Unit groups

31 (33) 92 (55) 84 (73) 29 (23) 40 (23) 18 (17)

14 (16) 66 (70) 14 (20) 40 (70) 11 (10) 33 (25) 3 (1) 3 (1) 130 (116) 436 (390) 17

ISCO - Support for implementation •

Publication and dissemination in book form and on web: – – – – –

• • • •

Introduction Classification structure Group Definitions Correspondence tables with ISCO-88 Index of occupational titles (Volume 2)

Manual on adapting ISCO for use in national and regional settings Provision of training on a regional or sub-regional basis Provision of technical assistance and advice directly to countries, subject to resource availability Assistance with and review of correspondences between national classifications and ISCO-08

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Unit Group 5221 Shopkeepers Shopkeepers operate small retail shops either independently or with support from a small number of others. Tasks include – (a) determining product mix, stock and price levels for goods to be sold; (b) purchasing and ordering goods for sale from markets, wholesalers and other suppliers; (c) budgeting and maintaining records of stock levels and financial transactions; (d) determining prices and displaying goods for sale; (e) selling goods to customers and advising them on product use; (f) examining returned goods and deciding on appropriate action; (g) taking inventory of goods in stock. Examples of the occupations classified here: ▪ Grocer ▪ Newsagent ▪ Shopkeeper Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Unit Group 5221 Shopkeepers Some related occupations classified elsewhere: ▪ Shop manager – 1420 ▪ Market stallholder – 5211 Note Only operators of small shops for whom the management and supervision of staff are not a significant component of the work are classified in Unit Group 5221: Shopkeepers. Operators of shops where management tasks and supervision of staff are significant and frequent elements of the work are classified in Unit Group 1420: Retail and Wholesale Trade Managers. Staff who control and direct the activities of shop sales assistants, checkout operators and other workers, but who do not take responsibility for determining product mix, overall setting of prices, budgets, staffing levels, selection and recruitment are classified in Unit Group 5222: Shop Supervisors. Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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.

WHAT IS ISCO USED FOR?

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What is ISCO used for?  International reporting, comparison and exchange of statistical and administrative data on occupation  A model for the development of national and regional classifications of occupations  Used directly in countries that have not developed their own national classifications

International Standard Classification of Occupations, 2008 (ISCO-08)

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Uses of occupation classifications • Occupation Classifications are used for:  Statistics from censuses, household surveys, employer surveys and other sources.  Detailed observations about jobs are organized into meaningful and useful groups for analysis

 Administrative and policy-related activities such as: • matching job seekers with job vacancies • educational planning • management of employment related international migration

•

Providing statistics on – – – –

job seekers and job vacancies numbers of places and enrolments in training programmes Migrant and expatriate labour Employment numbers, wages, hours worked etc.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Occupation classifications in employment services • Matching of job-seekers to job vacancies – Job seekers and vacancies coded to National Occupation Classifications (NOC) – Resumes of matching jobseekers can be sent automatically to employers - Or job vacancy details sent to clients

- May require more detail than provided by ISCO - Possible need for more detail in NOC

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Integrated occupational information systems  Framework for provision of careers information  Identification of skill shortages or oversupply  When a harmonised classification system is used for all purposes and in all data sources  Provision of integrated information about pay, job prospects, working hours, nature of work performed, for example:  US O*NET: http://online.onetcenter.org/  Australian Job Outlook: http://joboutlook.gov.au/pages/help.aspx

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Elements to consider in classifying to ISCO

CONCEPTUAL BASIS AND DESIGN OF THE CLASSIFICATION Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Underlying concepts –ISCO-08 • •

Job : a set of tasks and duties performed, or meant to be performed, by one person for a single economic unit Occupation: a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of similarity: – A person may be associated with an occupation through the main job currently held, a second job, or a job previously held

•

Occupations are organized into groups according to skill level and skill specialization: – Skill level is applied mainly at the top (major group) level of the classification. – Within each major group occupations are arranged into unit groups, minor groups and sub-major groups, primarily on the basis of aspects of skill specialization.

ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

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Skill – the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a job Skill level : a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties performed in an occupation: – Measured operationally by considering one or more of:  The nature of the work performed in an occupation in relation to the characteristic tasks and duties defined for each ISCO-08 skill level (new for ISCO-08)  The level of formal education defined in terms of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97) required for competent performance of the tasks and duties involved  The amount of informal on-the-job training and/or previous experience in a related occupation required for competent performance of these tasks and duties

ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

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ISCO-08 skill levels • Definitions of each of the four ISCO skill levels are provided: – They do not change the boundaries between the skill levels used in ISCO-88. – Each definition provides examples of:  the typical or characteristic tasks performed at each skill level,  the types of skill required (in broad terms), and  the typical occupations classified at that skill level

ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

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Mapping of the four ISCO-08 skill levels to ISCED-97 levels of education ISCO-08 Skill ISCED-97 groups Level

4

6 - Second stage of tertiary education (leading to an advanced research qualification) 5a - First stage of tertiary education, 1st degree (medium duration)

3

5b - First stage of tertiary education (short or medium duration)

2

4 - Post-secondary, non-tertiary education 3 - Upper secondary level of education 2 - Lower secondary level of education

1

1 - Primary level of education

ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

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Table 1: Mapping of ISCO-08 major groups to skill levels ISCO-08 major groups 1 - Managers

Skill Level 3+4

2 - Professionals

4

3 - Technicians and associate professionals

3

4 - Clerical support workers 5 - Service and sales workers 6 - Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 7 - Craft and related trades workers 8 - Plant and machine operators, and assemblers

2

9 - Elementary occupations

1

0 –Armed forces occupations ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

1, 2 + 4 31

Skill – the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a job Skill specialization considered in terms of four concepts:  the field of knowledge required  the tools and machinery used  the materials worked on or with: and  the kinds of goods and services produced.

ISCO-08 – Conceptual Basis and Design of the Classification

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ISCO STRUCTURE

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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The structure of ISCO-08 •

Hierarchically structured classification comprising: – 10 major groups – 43 sub-major groups – 130 minor groups – 436 unit groups

•

The concept of skill level is applied mainly at the top (major group) level of the classification, giving more emphasis to the nature of the work performed, than to the formal and informal education and training requirements – In the case of ISCO-08 Major Group 1: Managers, and Major Group 0: Armed Forces Occupations, the concept of skill level is applied primarily at the second hierarchical level.

•

Within each major group, occupations are arranged into unit groups, minor groups and sub-major groups, primarily on the basis of aspects of skill specialization.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Mapping of ISCO-08 major groups to skill levels ISCO-08 major groups 1 - Managers

Skill Level 3+4

2 - Professionals

4

3 - Technicians and associate professionals

3

4 - Clerical support workers 5 - Service and sales workers 6 - Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 7 - Craft and related trades workers 8 - Plant and machine operators, and assemblers

2

9 - Elementary occupations

1

0 –Armed forces occupations ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

1, 2 + 4 35

ISCO-08 Major Group 1 Managers 11

12

13

14

111 112

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators Legislators and senior officials Managing directors and chief executives

121 122

Administrative and commercial managers Business services and administration managers Sales, marketing and development managers Production and specialized services managers Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution

131 132 managers 133 Information and communications technology service managers 134 Professional services managers 141 142 143

Hospitality, retail and other services managers Hotel and restaurant managers Retail and wholesale trade managers Other services managers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Sub-major groups in Major group 2, Professionals ISCO-88 and ISCO-08 ISCO ISCO-88 ISCO-88 Title 08 ISCO-08 Title Code Code Physical, mathematical 21 Science and engineering 21 and engineering science professionals professionals 22

Health professionals

23

Life science and health professionals Teaching professionals

23

Teaching professionals

24

Other professionals

24

Business and administration professionals Information and communications technology professionals Legal, social and cultural professionals

22

25 26 ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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22 Health professionals 221 2211 2212

222 2221 2222 223 2230 224 2240 225 2250 226 2261 2262 2263 2264 2265 2266 2267 2269

Medical doctors Generalist medical practitioners Specialist medical practitioners Nursing and midwifery professionals Nursing professionals Midwifery professionals Traditional and complementary medicine professionals Traditional and complementary medicine professionals Paramedical practitioners Paramedical practitioners Veterinarians Veterinarians Other health professionals Dentists Pharmacists Environmental and occupational health and hygiene professionals Physiotherapists Dieticians and nutritionists Audiologists and speech therapists Optometrists and ophthalmic opticians Health professionals not elsewhere classified

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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25 Information and communications technology professionals 251

Software and applications developers and

analysts 2511 Systems analysts 2512 Software developers 2513 Web and multimedia developers 2514 Applications programmers 2519 Software and multimedia developers and analysts not elsewhere classified

252 2521 2522 2523 2529 classified

Database and network professionals Database designers and administrators Systems administrators Computer network professionals Database and network professionals not elsewhere

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Sub-major groups in Major group 3, Technicians and associate professionals ISCO-88 and ISCO-08 ISCO88 Code

ISCO-88 Title

ISCO ISCO-08 Title -08 Code

31

Physical and engineering science associate professionals

31

Science and engineering associate professionals

32

Life science and health associate professionals

32

Health associate professionals

33

Teaching associate professionals

33

Business and administration associate professionals

34

Other associate professionals

34

Legal, social, cultural and related associate professionals

35

Information and communications technicians

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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32 Health associate professionals 321

322 323 324 325

Medical and pharmaceutical technicians 3211 Medical imaging and therapeutic equipment technicians 3212 Medical and pathology laboratory technicians 3213 Pharmaceutical technicians and assistants 3214 Medical and dental prosthetic technicians Nursing and midwifery associate professionals 3221 Nursing associate professionals 3222 Midwifery associate professionals Traditional and complementary medicine associate professionals 3230 Traditional and complementary medicine associate professionals Veterinary technicians and assistants 3240 Veterinary technicians and assistants Other health associate professionals 3251 Dental assistants and therapists 3252 Medical records and health information technicians 3253 Community health workers 3254 Dispensing opticians 3255 Physiotherapy technicians and assistants 3256 Medical assistants 3257 Environmental and occupational health inspectors and associates 3258 Ambulance workers 3259 Health associate professionals not elsewhere classified

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Major group 4, Clerical support workers: Sub-major and minor groups 41

General and keyboard clerks 411 General office clerks 412 Secretaries (general) 413 Keyboard operators

42

Customer services clerks 421 Tellers, money collectors and related clerks 422 Client information workers

43

Numerical and material recording clerks 431 Numerical clerks 432 Material-recording and transport clerks

44

Other clerical support workers 441 Other clerical support workers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Sales and Service Workers 51

Personal service workers 511 512 513 514 515 516

52

Travel attendants, conductors and guides Cooks Waiters and bartenders Hairdressers, beauticians and related workers Building and housekeeping supervisors Other personal services workers

Sales workers 521 522 523 524

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Street and market salespersons Shop salespersons Cashiers and ticket clerks Other sales workers

Personal care workers 531 532

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Child care workers and teachers' aides Carers in health services

Protective services workers 541

Protective services workers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Major group 6, Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers • ISCO-08 has three sub-major groups instead of the two included in ISCO-88 – Market-oriented agricultural workers are identified in a separate sub-major group from forestry and fishery workers;

• Virtually all farmers are classified in Major Group 6, whereas ISCO88 classified some farmers in Major Group 1; • More detailed categories are provided for subsistence workers; • More detailed categories are provided for agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers.

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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61 Market-oriented skilled agricultural workers 611 6111 6112 6113 6114

612 6121 6122 6123 6129

613 6130

Market gardeners and crop growers Field crop and vegetable growers Tree and shrub crop growers Gardeners, horticultural and nursery growers Mixed crop growers

Animal producers Livestock and dairy producers Poultry producers Apiarists and sericulturists Animal producers not elsewhere classified

Mixed crop and animal producers Mixed crop and animal producers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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62 Market-oriented skilled, forestry and fishery and hunting workers 621

Forestry and related workers

6210 Forestry and related workers

622 6211 6212 6213 6214

Fishery workers, hunters and trappers Aquaculture workers Inland and coastal waters fishery workers Deep-sea fishery workers Hunters and trappers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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63 Subsistence farmers, fishers, hunters and gatherers 631

Subsistence crop farmers

6310 Subsistence crop farmers

632

Subsistence livestock farmers

6320 Subsistence livestock farmers

633

Subsistence mixed crop and livestock farmers

6330 Subsistence mixed crop and livestock farmers

634

Subsistence fishers, hunters, trappers and

gatherers

6340 Subsistence fishers, hunters, trappers and gatherers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Major group 7, Craft and related trades workers: overview of changes • • • •

New Sub-major group 74, Electrotechnology trades workers New minor group for all handicraft workers Printing trades workers brought up-to-date Less detail in some areas

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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7 Craft and related trades workers 71 Building and related trades workers 711 Building frame and related trades workers 712 Building finishers and related trades workers 713 Painters, building structure cleaners and related trades workers

72 Metal, machinery and related trades workers 721 Sheet and structural metal workers, moulders and welders, and related workers 722 Blacksmiths, toolmakers and related trades workers 723 Machinery mechanics and repairers

73 Handicraft and printing workers 731 Handicraft workers 732 Printing trades workers

74 Electrotechnology trades workers 741 Electrical equipment installers and repairers 742 Electronics and telecommunications installers and repairers

75 Food processing, wood working, textile and other craft and related trades workers 751 Food processing and related trades workers 752 Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers 753 Textile, garment and related trades workers 754 Other craft and related workers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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8 Plant and machine operators, and assemblers 81

Stationary plant and machine operators 811 812 813 814 815 816 818

82

Mining and mineral processing plant operators Metal processing and finishing plant operators Chemical and photographic products plant and machine operators Rubber, plastic and paper products machine operators Textile, fur and leather products machine operators Food and related products machine operators Other stationary plant and machine operators

Assemblers 821 Assemblers

83

Drivers and mobile plant operators 831 832 833 834 835

Locomotive engine drivers and related workers Car, van and motorcycle drivers Heavy truck and bus drivers Mobile plant operators Ships' deck crews and related workers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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Major group 9, Elementary occupations: overview of changes • •

Increase from 3 to 6 in the number of sub-major groups Improved visibility and coverage of low skilled, low paid occupations – Including in the informal sector

• •

More detail for agricultural labourers Movement of building caretakers, and most doorkeepers and watchpersons to Major group 5

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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92 Agriculture, forestry and fishery labourers •

More detail in Minor group 921, Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers. – Labourers on crop farms, livestock farms, and mixed crop and livestock farms are identified separately – A separate unit group for Garden and horticultural labourers.

92

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers 921

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers 9211 9212 9213 9214 9215 9216

Crop farm labourers Livestock farm labourers Mixed crop and livestock farm labourers Garden and horticultural labourers Forestry labourers Fishery and aquaculture labourers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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9 Elementary occupations 91

Cleaners and helpers

92

Agricultural, fishery and forestry labourers

93

Labourers in mining, construction, manufacturing and transport

94

Food preparation assistants

95

Street and related sales and service workers

96

Refuse workers and other elementary service workers

911 912 921 931 932 933 941 951 952 961 962

Domestic, hotel and office cleaners and helpers Vehicle, window, laundry and other hand cleaning workers Agricultural, fishery and forestry labourers Mining and construction labourers Manufacturing labourers Transport and storage labourers Food preparation assistants Street and related service workers Street vendors Refuse workers Other elementary service workers

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

53

Major group 0, Armed forces occupations • •

New sub-major groups for Commissioned and Non-commissioned armed forces officers, and for Armed forces occupations, other ranks Each sub-major group is at a different skill level

0 Armed Forces occupations 01 Commissioned armed forces officers 011

Commissioned armed forces officers

02 Non-commissioned armed forces officers 021

Non-commissioned armed forces officers

03 Armed forces occupations, other ranks 031

Armed forces occupations, other ranks

ISCO-08 – Classification Structure - Overview

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MAIN CRITERIA TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE MAJOR GROUPS

55

Boundaries between the skill levels • Definitions of each of the four ISCO-08 skill levels are provided – These definitions do not change the boundaries between the skill levels used in ISCO-88. – They clarify these boundaries – Deal with cases where formal educational requirements may not be the most suitable method of measuring the skill level of a particular occupation.

• Each definition provides examples of: – the typical or characteristic tasks performed at each skill level; – the types of skill required (in broad terms); and – the typical occupations classified at that skill level.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Skill Level 1 •

Simple and routine physical or manual tasks. – May require the use of hand-held tools, such as shovels, or of simple electrical equipment, such as vacuum cleaners – Cleaning; digging; lifting and carrying materials by hand; sorting, storing or assembling goods by hand ; operating non-motorized vehicles; picking fruit and vegetables.

• •

Many occupations may require physical strength and/or endurance For some jobs basic skills in literacy and numeracy may be required –

• • •

If required these skills would not be a major part of the work.

For competent performance in some occupations completion of primary education or the first stage of basic education (ISCED-97 Level 1) may be required. A short period of on-the-job training may be required for some jobs. Occupations classified at Skill Level 1 include office cleaners, freight handlers, garden labourers and kitchen assistants.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Skill Level 2 •

•

Tasks such as operating machinery and electronic equipment; driving vehicles; maintenance and repair of electrical and mechanical equipment; and manipulation, ordering and storage of information. For almost all occupations the ability to read information, make written records of work completed, and accurately perform simple arithmetical calculations is essential. – Many occupations require relatively advanced literacy and numeracy skills and good interpersonal communication skills.

• •

Many occupations at this skill level require a high level of manual dexterity. The knowledge and skills required for competent performance in occupations at Skill Level 2 are generally obtained through completion of the first stage of secondary education (ISCED-97 Level 2). – Some occupations require the completion of the second stage of secondary education (ISCED-97 Level 3),

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Skill Level 2 • May include a significant component of specialized vocational education and on-the-job training. – Some occupations require completion of vocation-specific education undertaken after completion of secondary education (ISCED-97 Level 4). – In some cases experience and on-the-job training may substitute for the formal education.

• Occupations classified at Skill Level 2 include butchers, bus drivers, secretaries, accounts clerks, sewing machinists, dressmakers, shop sales assistants, police officers, hairdressers, building electricians and motor vehicle mechanics.

Introduction to occupation classification – What are occupations and why do we need to classify them?

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Skill Level 3 • Complex technical and practical tasks that require an extensive body of factual, technical and procedural knowledge in a specialized field. – ensuring compliance with health, safety and related regulations; preparing detailed estimates of quantities and costs of materials and labour required for specific projects; coordinating, supervising, controlling and scheduling the activities of other workers; and performing technical functions in support of professionals.

• Occupations at this skill level generally require a high level of literacy and numeracy and well-developed interpersonal communication skills. – may include the ability to understand complex written material, prepare factual reports and communicate verbally in difficult circumstances.

ILO Department of Statistics

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Skill Level 3 • The knowledge and skills required are usually obtained as the result of study at a higher educational institution for a period of 1–3 years following completion of secondary education (ISCED-97 Level 5b). – In some cases extensive relevant work experience and prolonged on-the-job training may substitute for the formal education.

• Occupations include shop managers, medical laboratory technicians, legal secretaries, commercial sales representatives, diagnostic medical radiographers, computer support technicians, and broadcasting and recording technicians

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Skill Level 4 • Tasks require complex problem-solving, decision-making and creativity based on an extensive body of theoretical and factual knowledge in a specialized field. – analysis and research to extend the body of human knowledge in a particular field; diagnosis and treatment of disease; imparting knowledge to others; and design of structures or machinery and of processes for construction and production.

• Occupations generally require extended levels of literacy and numeracy, sometimes at a very high level, and excellent interpersonal communication skills. – ability to understand complex written material and communicate complex ideas in media such as books, images, performances, reports and oral presentations.

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Skill Level 4 • The knowledge and skills are usually obtained as the result of study at a higher educational institution for a period of 3–6 years leading to the award of a first degree or higher qualification (ISCED-97 Level 5a or higher). – In some cases extensive experience and on-the-job training may substitute for the formal education, or may be required in addition to formal education. – In many cases appropriate formal qualifications are an essential requirement for entry to the occupation.

• Occupations include: sales and marketing managers, civil engineers, secondary school teachers, medical practitioners, musicians, operating theatre nurses and computer systems analysts

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ADAPTING ISCO-08 FOR USE IN NATIONAL AND REGIONAL SETTINGS

3 possible scenarios • Depending on national circumstances there are three main ways in which ISCO-08 may be adapted for national use: – minimal adaptation of ISCO-08 for national purposes; – development or review of a national classification based on ISCO-08; – an existing national classification, different from ISCO-08 is mapped to ISCO-08 to facilitate the production of internationally comparable data.

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Models for developing or adapting national classifications based on ISCO •

Adopt ISCO directly for national use – Much less than ideal – Some small countries with limited resources have no other choice – Collaborating with similar neighbouring countries may be an option

•

Adapt ISCO to suit national circumstances – A popular choice – May start from scratch – One or more classifications may already be used in the country

•

National occupation classification NOC is not based on ISCO – A common situation for countries with own tradition or history of occupation classification – May make adjustments to national classification to improve comparability with ISCO or take advantages of new features in ISCO

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Adopting ISCO-08 with minimal change • Where countries do not have the resources, capacity or time to develop a national occupation classification designed to suit the country’s own needs and requirements, there may be little choice other than to adopt ISCO-08 with minimal change. • This approach is far from ideal: – occupational structure of the labour market will vary greatly between countries – national policy concerns will also differ

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Adopting ISCO directly for national use • Some work at national level still required – Translate to national language(s) if necessary – Identify where national occupational groups/titles fit • Eg for nursing occupations

– Develop national index of occupational titles • Needed to code responses in statistical and other data collections • ISCO index can be adapted but national index should be based on terms used in your country

– Methods for implementation in national collections • Questions, coding procedures, presentation of output

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Adapt ISCO to suit national circumstances: (1) Starting from scratch

• In addition to everything on the last slide: – Understand user needs – Understand the occupational structure of your labour market • May require field work and to identify occupations available • Dependent on resources, expertise and time available

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Adapt ISCO to suit national circumstances: Existing national classification

• In addition to almost everything on the previous two slides: – Map old classification to ISCO-08 and identify features of each you want to retain or not use, to create a new national classification structure • For national classifications based on ISCO-88 the ISCO correspondence table will be a useful tool • National features from old classification you want to retain are reflected within an overall framework based on ISCO-08

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Adapt ISCO to suit national circumstances: starting from scratch or from an existing national classification – Decide at what level of ISCO-08 you will provide internationally comparable data (Eg 3 or 4 digits) – Collapse ISCO categories that are too detailed for national requirements • Eg by making a minor group into a unit group.

– Create more detailed categories where needed to suit national labour market, user requirements: • For example by adapting the 4th level or creating a 5th level

– Adjust the classification code structure as needed while maintaining correspondence table with ISCO-08 and old classification – Develop update national index of occupation titles containing new and old national and ISCO codes (2, 3 or 4 code sets may be needed) – Develop definitions of new or changed categories – Review and amend ISCO-08 definitions to ensure national relevance • Eg lists of included occupations

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National occupation classification NOC is not based on ISCO • Understand what your users need • Identify features of ISCO-08 that you want to incorporate in NOC • Adjust NOC structure to facilitate reporting to ISCO and incorporate new features • Develop correspondence table and possibly dual-or tricoded index.

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What is a coding index? • •

The key instrument for matching information about jobs with classification codes It can be in the form of a durable printed publication, a loose-leaf binder, computer printout, or a machine readable file within a computer system – The same index can be used in all of these forms

•

• •

Formal names for classification categories (Eg education manager) are not usually the same as terms normally used to describe jobs and industrial activities The index entries usually include a code for one or more classification systems, and some words based on responses given in censuses and surveys The index is searched alphabetically but can also be sorted in code order for updating and query resolution

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Developing and updating a coding index • • • •

•

Index must be in place before the coding operations start Basis should be responses to similar questions in the last census, labour force survey, household survey and census tests The same index should be used in all household based collections Collection and coding of elements to be included in the index should be done by experts in the classification concerned It should be anticipated that the index will be updated during the Census process – This is an extension of the query resolution process – The form of the index should reflect its need to be updated frequently – Earlier versions should be destroyed, except for those held by the index maintenance and quality control staff

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Sources of information for constructing and updating an occupation coding index • Organization of work and names used for jobs is in constant state of evolution – – – –

Reviews of responses from recent survey operations and census tests Job vacancy reviews (newspapers, internet, employment services) Full-scale job monitoring exercises ISCO index may be a good starting point in the absence of any national index or a useful source to assess completeness of a national index – Do neighbouring countries with similar languages have indexes you could share or adapt? – Index needs to reflect language as used in your country in response to questions in statistical collections

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AREAS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ADAPTING ISCO-08 FOR USE IN NATIONAL AND REGIONAL SETTINGS

Supervisors – Type 1 • Supervisors who: – carry out the same tasks and duties as in the jobs they supervise – control the professional or technical quality of the work done by others

Are classified with the workers they supervise/lead. – often called “foremen/-women” or “lead / team leaders”

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Supervisors Type 2 •

Supervisors who: – mainly plan, organize, co-ordinate, control and direct the work done by others – most of the time do not perform the tasks performed by those they supervise.

•

Separate categories have been created in those areas where this type of work is known to be common: – – – – –

3121 3122 3123 3341 5151

– 5222

• •

Mining supervisors Manufacturing supervisors Production supervisors Office supervisors Cleaning and housekeeping supervisors in offices, hotels and other establishments Shop supervisors

there are clear occupational titles for these occurring occupations supervisors not included above should be classified in the same unit group as the main occupation supervised.

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Major group 1 Managers • Managers may also plan, organize, co-ordinate, control and direct the work done by others – either directly or through the mediation of supervisors.

• In addition managers control and make decisions about: – budgets – the overall strategic and operational direction of a business (or organizational unit) – hiring and firing. •

Supervisors do not perform these tasks but may provide advice and assistance to managers, especially in relation to hiring and firing.

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ISCO-08 Major Group 1 Managers - General principles 11

12

13

14

111 112

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators Legislators and senior officials Managing directors and chief executives

121 122

Administrative and commercial managers Business services and administration managers Sales, marketing and development managers Production and specialized services managers Production managers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries Manufacturing, mining, construction, and distribution

131 132 managers 133 Information and communications technology service managers 134 Professional services managers 141 142 143

Hospitality, retail and other services managers Hotel and restaurant managers Retail and wholesale trade managers Other services managers

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Major group 1, Managers

•

Farmers and farm managers are all to be classified in major group 6, with exceptions only for those who manage agricultural production in large scale enterprises that typically have hierarchies of managers

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Owner operators of small enterprises • Mechanic who owns garage, works as a mechanic and employs 3 other mechanics? – Not relevant whether or not the person owns the business. – If the main work performed involves the tasks of a motor vehicle mechanic, or directly supervising the work of mechanics  Unit group 7231, Motor vehicle mechanics and repairers

 If, however, the main work performed relates to management  Unit group, 1439 Service managers not elsewhere classified  only the case for the managers of workshops in the largest of vehicle dealerships or transportation companies

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Owner operators of small enterprises special cases • Hoteliers – Unit group 1411, Hotel managers – But note: Operators of small establishments • some bed and breakfast establishments and small guest houses, • providing accommodation and limited meal services to clients effectively as paying guests in private households • For whom management and supervision of staff is not a significant component of the work, are classified in unit group 5152, Domestic housekeepers.

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Owner operators of small enterprises special cases 2 • Shopkeepers

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5221

Shopkeepers

Shopkeepers operate small retail shops either independently or with support from a small number of others. Tasks include

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

determining product mix, stock and price levels for goods to be sold; purchasing and ordering goods for sale from markets, wholesalers and other suppliers budgeting and maintaining records of stock levels and financial transactions; determining prices and displaying goods for sale; selling goods to customers and advising them on product use; examining returned goods and deciding on appropriate action; taking inventory of goods in stock. Examples of the occupations classified here: - Shopkeeper - Grocer - Newsagent Notes Only operators of small shops for whom the management and supervision of staff is not a significant component of the work are classified in Unit group 5221, Shopkeepers. Operators of shops where management tasks and supervision of staff are significant and frequent elements of the work are classified in Unit group 1420, Retail and wholesale trade managers. Staff who control and direct the activities of shop sales assistants, checkout operators and other workers, but who do not take responsibility for determining product mix, overall setting of prices, budgets and staffing levels, selection and recruitment are classified in Unit group 5222, Shop supervisors.

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52 Sales workers 521 Street and market salespersons 5211 Stall and market salespersons 5212 Street food salespersons

522 Shop salespersons 5221 Shop keepers 5222 Shop supervisors 5223 Shop sales assistants

523 Cashiers and ticket clerks 5230 Cashiers and ticket clerks

524 Other sales workers 5241 5242 5243 5244 5245 5246 5249

Fashion and other models Sales demonstrators Door to door salespersons Contact centre salespersons Service station attendants Food service counter attendants Sales workers not elsewhere classified

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63 Subsistence farmers, fishers, hunters and gatherers •

ISCO-88 Sub-major group 62, Subsistence agricultural workers has been retained – –

•

Name and code change Extra detail to reflect the minor group structure of 61

The definitions for this group and for Sub-major groups 61, 62 and 92 have been improved to make it clear that: –

–

–

Workers engaged in agricultural, forestry and fisheries activities should be classified in Sub-major group 63 if the main aim of the production is to provide goods (mainly food) for consumption by the workers’ own household Those who only perform simple tasks requiring little judgement or experience should nevertheless be classified in Sub major group 92, Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers Subsistence hunters, trappers and collectors should also be classified in Sub-major group 63

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Nursing and related occupations 222 Nursing and midwifery professionals 2221 Nursing professionals 2222 Midwifery professionals 322 Nursing and midwifery associate professionals 3221 Nursing associate professionals 3222 Midwifery associate professional 532 Personal care workers in health services 5321 Health care assistants 5322 Home-based personal care workers 5329 Personal care workers in health services not elsewhere classified

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But be careful • Skill level : a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties performed in an occupation: – Measured operationally by considering one or more of:  The nature of the work performed in an occupation in relation to the characteristic tasks and duties defined for each ISCO-08 skill level;  The level of formal education defined in terms of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97)required for competent performance of the tasks and duties involved; and  The amount of informal on-the-job training and/or previous experience in a related occupation required for competent performance of these tasks and duties.

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COLLECTING AND CODING DATA ON OCCUPATION IN HOUSEHOLD BASED COLLECTIONS Collecting and coding data on occupation in household based collections

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Occupation – information needed for coding • For accurate coding to any level of ISCO (and related national classifications) information is needed on: – Name or title of occupation – Main tasks or duties usually performed in the job

• The following may information may also be useful – The type of economic activity of the establishment (industry) – Whether or not the main aim of the activity is own consumption (subsistence)

• Information about the level of skill or qualifications of an individual is not necessary and not useful

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Occupation – types of question • Three types of question on occupation have typically been used. – One or two pre-coded questions – One write-in question to obtain occupation-relevant information about an individual’s job – Two or more (write-in) questions, a basic question on the title of the position held with follow-up on main tasks of the individual in the job

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Occupation – closed versus open ended questions •

Closed ended pre-coded questions – Have limited accuracy as names for groups in occupation classifications do not equate with real world terms to describe jobs – Are limited to a small number of categories and do not meet the needs of most data users – Take up a large amount of space on questionnaires

BUT – The responses can be processed quickly and at a low cost

•

If this approach is unavoidable due to cost limitations: – Separate response categories can be provided for high priority groups – Accuracy can be improved through testing and refinement of questions – The names of categories from broad classification groups should not usually appear on the questionnaire

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Occupation – open-ended questions • • • • • • •

If designed well they can provide sufficient information to assign a 4-digit ISCO code Adequate space must be provided for a written response of several words Should collect information about both job title and main tasks or duties performed Examples of suitably detailed responses should be provided Good interviewer training is essential Responses have to be assigned classification codes using an index of occupation titles (a coding index) Relatively quick and cost effective coding methods are possible, but require development effort

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Occupation – single open-ended questions • A single question such as: a) b)

What is the main occupation of (the person) in this workplace? What kind of work did (the person) do?

may provide adequate information from some but not all respondents –

But may yield responses such as ‘Manager’, ‘Consultant’, ‘Farm work’ that can not be coded accurately to any level of ISCO

• Interviewers need to be trained to probe when information provided is insufficient

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Occupation – multiple open-ended questions • Use of separate questions on job title and tasks performed generally assures that sufficient detail is provided • Asking for two different types of information helps the respondent to respond fully, for example: Title: Sales manager Tasks: Selling used cars Title: Customer service consultant Tasks: Selling used cars

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Occupation question – agricultural activities • • • •

Occupation title is often sufficient for some occupations Task question helps to ensure sufficient detail is required Distinction between skilled farm workers (Major group 6) and Farm labourers (Major group 9) can be difficult Special attention should be given to subsistence farming: – Are separate job titles used for subsistence farmers? – If subsistence farming is significant consider an additional question: • E.g. ‘Does your farm produce goods mainly for sale or mainly for your own or family use’

– Any information on own-use production work is collected in the survey this should be used in occupation coding

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Hypothetical questions recommended for testing and use (part 1) (In the main job held last week) what was (your) work or occupation? Please give full job title and be specific, for example: Fruit picker Legal secretary Restaurant manager Secondary school teacher Cattle farmer Registered nurse

Occupation:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

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Hypothetical questions recommended for testing and use (part 2) What are your main tasks or duties in that job? Please give details. For example: Picking and carrying oranges and peaches Preparing legal documents Managing the operations of a restaurant Teaching mathematics Managing a cattle farm Caring for the sick and administering medications

Main tasks or duties: …………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………

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Coding occupation • Responses to open ended questions have to be assigned to the appropriate category in an occupation classification • Not a simple process • Responses to questions on occupation (title and tasks), industry and name and address of workplace are relevant for coding both occupation and industry • Coding should be done using indexes occupational titles – A coding index – Mapping directly to the classification is error prone and inefficient

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Occupation coding

• The main aim of the coding process – To determine and record correctly to which category in the classification the job should be classified • at the most detailed level of the classification possible on the basis of the information provided in the responses • at the level of detail required to satisfy important user needs in the national context, as well as for international reporting • Generally this should be at ISCO 4-digit level

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Strategic coding and processing options - Field or office coding? The following choices are available: 1. The respondent codes himself/herself to a predefined category • Implies pre-coded questions • Inadequate quality but less expensive than other options 2. The enumerator codes in the field, either during the interview or before the questionnaire is forwarded for further processing • A variation on pre-coded questions OR • Enumerator writes down the response (or keywords) and codes the response after the interview using an index. 3. Specially trained coders code in connection with consistency checks of the questionnaire and data entry • Office coding – the preferred option in most cases Collecting and coding data on occupation in household based collections

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Coding in the field by the enumerator •

• •

Enumerator writes down the response (or keywords) and codes the response after the interview using an index. – Allows coding to detailed categories – Over time and as part of training enumerators become aware of the type of information required to code correctly BUT – Coding becomes one of many tasks for a large number of enumerators – Enumerators cannot be given the same amount of training, supervision and support as specialized coders – Quality and consistency of coding are likely to be poor Can work in a continuous Labour Force Survey with a permanent field staff and good training and communication For large-scale infrequent operations such as the Census, coding of occupation and industry as part of the central processing operation is preferred

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Office coding • Can be done manually with a paper index, or with computer assistance • Can be combined with automatic coding • Coders may specialize in the coding of one (or a few) variables or deal with the whole form • Coders need to be thoroughly trained and tested before they start coding • Quality of coding operations can and should be rigorously controlled • Specialists in classification should be involved in training and quality assurance

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At what level of the classification should responses be coded? • It is sometimes decided that responses should be coded to an aggregate level of the classification structure (Eg 3-digit level of ISCO) • Arguments for this include: – Perceived cost of coding to a larger number of categories in terms of errors and staff hours required – It was thought that the responses would not support coding to more detailed categories – In sample surveys the detailed results may not be publishable

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At what level of the classification should responses be coded? • But the experience of statistical agencies has shown – – – –

Marginal costs of coding to a larger number of categories are small Error rate does not significantly increase and may improve for aggregate groups Many responses support detailed coding, while some do not Coding to an arbitrary specific level of the classification involves unnecessary loss of information – Some groups at detailed levels of classification may be larger than others at higher levels • Statistics on the top 10 or twenty detailed occupation groups can and should be published – Coding at a higher level limits options for tabulation, international reporting, production of flexible non-standard aggregations

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Coding of vague and difficult responses •

Some responses may be too vague and imprecise to allow the coder to determine to which category the job belongs  should be coded to the level in the classification structure supported by the information available  should not be forced into any particular detailed category Residual groups (not elsewhere classified) should not be used for vague responses

A common method to with this type of response is to provide entries in the coding index for commonly occurring vague responses Such responses are assigned the code for the relevant higher category, followed by trailing zeros. – responses can be allocated proportionally to the more detailed categories in a transparent manner – or they can be released in publications labelled as : ‘Group name not further defined’

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Occupation title: Sales Tasks performed: Selling 52 Sales workers 5200 Sales workers not further defined

521 Street and market salespersons 5211Stall and market salespersons 5212Street food salespersons

522 Shop salespersons 5221Shopkeepers 5222Shop supervisors 5223Shop sales assistants

523 Cashiers and ticket clerks 5230Cashiers and ticket clerks

524 Other sales workers 5241Fashion and other models 5242Sales demonstrators 5243Door to door salespersons 5244Contact centre salespersons 5245Service station attendants 5246Food service counter attendants 5249Sales workers not elsewhere classified

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Other difficult responses • Indicate that the job the job involves tasks and duties that cut across the distinctions made in the classification • Represent a type of work not covered by the classification or not listed in the coding index  Should be referred as queries to expert coders and ultimately to those responsible for maintaining the classification and index – Strategies to deal quickly with commonly occurring difficult responses and update the coding index or procedures are essential

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Coding tools • Coding instructions – A single document specifying the procedures the coder is to follow

• Coding index – Translates verbatim terms used in responses into classification codes

• Query resolution procedures – How to deal with responses that can not be coded using the index and standard coding procedures

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Automatic and computer assisted coding •

•

Both use computing to speed up process of searching an index, identifying matching responses, following coding rules and recording the correct code In Computer assisted coding (CAC) the coder enters a small number of characters from key and qualifying words – Matching index entries are displayed and coder selects matching entry – Correct code is recorded by coder or the computer or a query is raised

•

In automatic coding (AC) responses are key entered or captured photographically, then matched automatically by the computer – Match rates of up to 70% have been achieved – Remaining entries are coded using CAC – Requires a high degree of sophistication and a very well designed index

•

Software solutions are available at low cost but cost of integration into larger processing systems may be high

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