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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline December 2013 Volume 16 Number 6

Editor-in-Chief Official Research Journal of Tommy the American Boone, PhD, Society MBA of Review Board Exercise Physiologists Todd Astorino, PhD Julien Baker, ISSN 1097-9751 PhD Steve Brock, PhD Lance Dalleck, PhD Eric Goulet, PhD Robert Gotshall, PhD Alexander Hutchison, PhD M. Knight-Maloney, PhD Len Kravitz, PhD James Laskin, PhD Yit Aun Lim, PhD Lonnie Lowery, PhD Derek Marks, PhD Cristine Mermier, PhD Robert Robergs, PhD Chantal Vella, PhD Dale Wagner, PhD Frank Wyatt, PhD Ben Zhou, PhD

Official Research Journal of the American Society of Exercise Physiologists

ISSN 1097-9751

JEPonline Effects of Acute Eccentric Exercise Stimulus on Muscle Injury and Adaptation Emmanuel Frimpong1, Daniel Ansong Antwi1, George Asare2, Charles Antwi-Boasiako1, Bartholomew Dzudzor3 1Department

of Physiology, University of Ghana Medical School, of Chemical Pathology, University of Ghana School of Allied Health Sciences, 3Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Ghana Medical School 2Department

ABSTRACT Frimpong E, Antwi DA, Asare G, Antwi-Boasiako C, Dzudzor B. Effects of Acute Eccentric Exercise Stimulus on Muscle Injury and Adaptation. JEPonline 2013;16:(6)18-30. The purpose of this study was to investigate the stimulus of acute eccentric aerobic exercise that would elicit minimal muscle injury but adequate to induce muscle tissue adaptation. Twenty healthy subjects were randomized into two groups: (a) the low stimulus eccentric exercise group (LSEEG); and (b) the high stimulus eccentric exercise group (HSEEG). Both groups performed acute exercise (bout 1) and a repeated exercise (bout 2). In the acute bout, the LSEEG exercised at 50% of heart rate reserve (HRR) for 30 min while the HSEEG exercised at 70% of HRR for 40 min on a treadmill declined at a gradient of 15º. Two weeks after the acute exercise for both groups, the subjects performed a repeated exercise bout at 80% of HRR for 40 min. Creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), total white blood cells (TWBC), and perceived muscle soreness (SOR) before and 1, 24, and 48 hrs postexercise were assessed as markers of muscle injury and adaption. The results showed that muscle injury was significantly higher in the HSEEG than in the LSEEG in the acute exercises. However, both exercise groups developed similar muscle adaptations with no significant differences in attenuations in CK, LDH, and SOR in the repeated bout. Exercise at 50% of HRR for 30 min may be a threshold stimulus for acute eccentric aerobic exercise. Key Words: Threshold Stimulus, Creatine Kinase, Perceived Muscle Soreness, Lactate Dehydrogenase

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INTRODUCTION Improvement in exercise capacity of human skeletal muscle to adapt to repeated bouts of physical activity over time results from exercise training (8,11). The major objective in muscle training is to cause physiologic adaptations to improve performance of a given task (1). Acute exercise stimulus (in terms of intensity and duration) and the type of exercise (eccentric exercise vs. concentric exercise) are important in inducing adaptation in skeletal muscles. For example, it has been found that, acute exercise usually results in evidence of skeletal muscle injury that involves eccentric (lengthening) muscle contractions when beginning an exercise program (5,15). The microtrauma injury to muscle fibers and extracellular matrix is followed by an inflammatory response (6) that appears to be a consequence of both metabolic and mechanical factors (10). Thus, the performance of unaccustomed exercise results in mechanical disruption to the cellular structure of muscle (43) that changes the excitation-contraction coupling system (33). The markers of muscle injury include leakage of myofibrillar proteins such as creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrognase (LDH) into the blood (13,25), delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) (31,37), muscle swelling and increased circumference of injured muscle, decrease in range of motion (ROM), and decreased muscle strength (26,42). The performance of only one bout of eccentric exercise that produces muscle injury results in an adaptation such that there is less evidence of injury when the exercise bout is repeated after a week and even up to 6 months with no intervening exercise between the bouts (19). This muscle adaptation to injury (also known as repeated bout effect) is consistently characterized by lower perceptions of soreness, lower strength and performance decrements, and reduced creatine kinase activity relative to the acute or first exercise bout (23,29,32,35,36,42). Exercise-induced muscle injury (EIMI) is inevitable in sedentary individuals who start an exercise program. Also, individuals in excellent athletic condition may experience muscle injury and soreness when performing exercises that are new to them (24). At the moment little is known about the relationship between muscle injury induced by acute eccentric aerobic exercise and the adaptation or repeated bout effect that occurs afterwards. That is, it is not known whether the more the muscle injury induced from high stimulus exercise, the better the muscle adaptation or that adaptation occurs regardless of the injury induced in the acute exercise. Moreover, the particular threshold stimulus (in terms of intensity and duration) for which a novel aerobic exercise that is eccentrically biased should be performed to reduce the extent of muscle injury (while inducing adequate adaptation) has not been determined. This is important in exercise prescription and supervision in that an optimal exercise prescription either for competitive training or for fitness improvement is a balance between the intensity, duration, and the type of exercise (44). Furthermore, few previous studies in this area of EIMI have focused on anaerobic exercises on the upper and lower limbs (12,17,39). Brown et al. (12) observed that similar amounts of protection were afforded to individuals completing 10 maximal voluntary contractions of the knee extensors as was afforded to those completing 50 contractions. Similar results were reported from studies of similar protocols (12,17,39). Hence, the implication is that if individuals perform exercises at different stimuli of same exercise type and have similar adaptations and protection against injury from subsequent exercises, then one would not have to overexert in the acute bout of the exercise.

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The purpose of the study was to investigate the stimulus of acute eccentric aerobic exercise that elicited minimal muscle injury and adequately induced muscle tissue adaptation. Thus, the specific objectives of the study were: (1) to assess the effects of low and high stimuli of acute eccentric aerobic exercises on muscle injury; (2) to evaluate muscle adaptation developed from the acute exercises; and (3) to determine whether muscle adaptation depends on serious muscle injury. METHODS Subjects This study consisted of 20 apparently healthy University of Ghana students (14 males and 6 females) of the Korle Bu Campus. The mean age, weight, and height of the subjects were 22.0 ± 1.5 yrs, 62.5 ± 5.9 kg, and 1.7 ± 0.1 m, respectively. None of the subjects had participated in a structured exercise program at least 6 months prior to the study, especially regarding eccentric exercises of the lower extremities such as down-hill running. They had no medical history for which the study’s exercises were contraindicated. The research procedures and research design were approved by the Ethical and Protocol Review Committee of University of Ghana Medical School. All subjects gave written informed consent after having understood explanations of the experimental protocol and any potential risks that could be encountered. Procedures Exercise Protocol After completing the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ), the subjects were randomized into two groups. Subjects in each group performed two exercise bouts. Bout 1 consisted of the acute exercise group (Group 1) performing low stimulus eccentric exercises (LSEEG) at 50% of heart rate reserve (HRR) for 30 min. Group 2, the high stimulus eccentric exercise group (HSEEG), performed high stimulus eccentric exercise at 70% of HRR for 40 min. Two weeks later, both LSEEG and HSEEG performed bout 2 exercises of similar eccentrically biased exercises at 80% of HRR for 45 min. The training stimulus in the second bout was necessary for assessing muscle tissue adaptation induced by the acute exercise of bout 1. The 2-wk time interval was allowed for recovery from bout 1. The intensity of the exercise for each group was to determine the target heart rate (THR) calculated as a percentage of the HRR. THR was calculated using the Karvonen method (27). This is given by the relation: THR = (HR max – HR rest) × (%Intensity) + HR rest Where maximal heart rate (HR max) = 220 – age, heart rate reserve (HRR) = HR max – HR rest, resting heart rate (HR rest) and percentage intensity (%Intensity) calculated as a percentage of the HRR. The target heart rates were determined during the familiarization session 2 days before the down-hill running exercises. Muscle injury was induced by acute and repeated bouts of down-hill treadmill running. The Xenon treadmill (Okinawa, Japan) was declined at a gradient of 15º. The down-hill slope was obtained by placing a wooden pallet under the rear of the treadmill. This was obtained from angle of declination and the length of the treadmill (21). Heart rate was monitored with a HR monitor, Polar Accurex Plus, Polar Electro Oy, (Kempele, Finland) to ensure that the subjects exercised within the set target HRs. As an adjunct to HR in monitoring exercise intensity, rating of perceived exertion was used (9). The

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speed of the treadmill was adjusted to the required target HRs. Blood pressure was measured using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer and stethoscope. In order to minimize data variability, certain restrictions were placed on the subjects. They were told not to perform any exercise other than the physical activities associated with their activities of daily living. They were also instructed: (a) to abstain from massaging, stretching, and any form of treatment to the lower limbs; and (b) to refrain from taking any non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), nutritional supplements, alcohol, and caffeine before and during the experimental period. Blood Sample Collection Blood samples were collected before and at 1, 24, and 48 hrs after exercise in both the acute and repeated bouts. Five ml of venous blood was drawn from the antecubital vein by venipuncture. Each blood sample drawn was divided into two tubes: (1) one-half was collected into EDTA tubes for full blood count (FBC) analysis; and (2) the other half into Serum Separator Tubes for assays of serum markers of muscle injury. The time for blood sampling was fixed at 7:00 am after an overnight fast. Blood samples in Serum Separator Tubes were centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 10 min and the serum aliquoted into labeled eppendoff tubes for CK and LDH analyses. The samples were stored at a temperature of −20°C until analyses were completed. Biochemical and Physical Markers of Muscle Injury and Adaptation The serum CK activity was measured by the VITROS CK Slide method and the VITROS Chemistry Products Calibrator Kit 3 (UK). The serum LDH was measured by the VITROS LDH Slide method and VITROS Chemistry Products Calibrator Kit 3 (UK). Circulating levels of TWBC were measured as inflammatory markers with Sysmex Autoanalyser (Kobe, Japan). Perceived muscle soreness (SOR) was used to assess pain of bilateral quadriceps by Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Statistical Analyses The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16. Paired and unpaired t-tests were used to compare mean differences within and between the groups, respectively. A P-value of less than 0.05 was considered significant. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation (mean ± SD). RESULTS The serum levels of CK and LDH, TWBC as well as SOR were compared between LSEEG and HSEEG in the acute exercises as markers of muscle injury. The same markers were measured in the repeated bout exercises to assess muscle adaptation. Attenuations in these markers in the repeated bout showed the extent of muscle adaptation developed from the acute exercise-induced injury. Table 1 shows the results of the characteristics of the subjects. There were no significant differences between LSEEG and HSEEG among the variables: age, height, BMI, SBP, DBP, and HR (P>0.05).

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Table 1. Characteristics of the Subjects (LSEEG, n = 10; HSEEG, n = 10). LSEEG HSEEG Variables (Mean ± SD)

P-value

(Mean ± SD)

Age (yrs)

21.7 ± 1.9

21.1 ± 1.3

0.397

Weight (kg)

61.8 ± 6.3

63.2 ± 5.2

0.581

Height (m)

1.7 ± 0.1

1.7 ± 0.2

0.735

BMI (kg·m-2)

22.4 ± 2.3

22.6 ± 2.1

0.812

SBP (mmHg)

117.6 ± 4.2

117.5 ± 4.4

0.959

DBP (mmHg)

75.5 ± 6.1

76.1 ± 5.0

0.795

HR (beats·min-1)

73.0 ± 8.3

72.0 ± 6.3

0.633

LSEEG - low stimulus eccentric exercise group, HSEEG - high stimulus eccentric exercise group; HR - resting heart rate, BMI - body mass index, DBP - diastolic blood pressure, SBP - systolic blood pressure. Data are presented as mean ± SD. The mean differences in age, weight, height, BMI, SBP, DBP, and HR between LSEEG and HSEEG were not significant (P>0.05).

Mean serum levels of CK (IU/L)

450

*

400

LSEEG HSEEG

350

*

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Baseline

1 HR

24 HRS

48 HRS

Pre and Post-Exercise Assessment Time (hrs) Figure 1: Comparing Mean Serum CK Levels between LSEEG and HSEEG in the Acute Exercises. The mean differences between LSEEG and HSEEG at baseline and 1 hr post-exercise were not significant (P>0.05). *Indicates CK significantly higher in HSEEG at 24 and 48 hrs post-exercise (P=0.00018; P=0.0038, respectively).

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Mean serum levels of CK (IU/L)

250

LSEEG HSEEG

200

150

100

50

0 Baseline

1 HR 24 HRS Pre and Post-Exercise Assessment Time (hrs)

48 HRS

800

*

Mean serum levels of LDH (IU/L)

Figure 2: Comparing Mean Serum CK Levels between LSEEG and HSEEG in the Repeated Bout Exercises. There were no significant differences in means between LSEEG and HSEEG at baseline and 1, 24, and 48 hrs post-exercise (P>0.05). LSEEG HSEEG

700 600

*

500 400 300 200 100 0 Baseline

1 HR 24 HRS Pre and Post-Exercise Assessment Time (hrs)

48 HRS

Figure 3: Comparing Mean Serum LDH Levels between LSEEG and HSEEG in the Acute Exercises. The mean differences between LSEEG and HSEEG at baseline and 1 hr post-exercise were not significant (P>0.05). *Indicates LDH significantly higher in HSEEG at 24 and 48 hrs post-exercise (P